Agile Software Development
Автор: Alistair Cockburn /
APPENDIX B: Naur, Ehn, Musashi Pelle Ehn, Wittgenstein's Language Game
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Часть 4
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Nevertheless, we know that systems descriptions are useful in the language-game of design. The new orientation suggested in a Wittgensteinian approach is that we see such descriptions as a special kind of artifact that we use as "typical examples" or "paradigm cases. " They are not models in the sense of Cartesian mirror images of reality (Nordenstam, 1984). In the language-game of design, we use these tools as reminders for our reflection on future computer applications and their use. By using such design artifacts, we bring earlier experiences to mind, and they bend our way of thinking of the past and the future. I think that this is why we should understand them as representations (Kaasboll, forthcoming). And this is how they inform our practice. If they are good design artifacts, they will support good moves within a specific design language-game.
The meaning of a design artifact is its use in a design language-game, not how it "mirrors reality. " Its ability to support such use depends on the kinds of experience it evokes, its family resemblance to tools that the participants use in their everyday work activity. Therein lies a clue to why the breakthrough in the UTOPIA project was related to the use of prototypes and mockups. Since the design artifacts took the form of reminders or paradigm cases, they did not merely attempt to mirror a given or future practice linguistically. They could be experienced through the practical use of a prototype or mockup. This experience could be further reflected upon in the language-game of design, either in ordinary language or in an artificial one.
A good example from the UTOPIA project is an empty cardboard box with "desktop laser printer" written on the top. There is no functionality in this mockup. Still, it works very well in the design game of envisioning the future work of makeup staff. It reminded the participating typographers of the old "proof machine" they used to work with in lead technology. At the same time, it suggested that with the help of new technology, the old proof machine could be reinvented and enhanced.
This design language-game was played in 1982. At that time, desktop laser printers only existed in advanced research laboratories, and certainly typographers had never heard of them. To them, the idea of a cheap laser printer was "unreal. "
It was our responsibility as professional designers to be aware of such future possibilities and to suggest them to the users. It was also our role to suggest this technical and organizational solution in such a way that the users could experience and envision what it would mean in their practical work, before the investment of too much time, money, and development work. Hence, the design game with the mockup laser printer. The mockup made sense to all participants--users and designers (Ehn Kyng, 1991).
This focus on nonlinguistic design artifacts is not a rejection of the importance of linguistic ones. Understood as triggers for our imagination rather than as mirror images of reality, they may well be our most wonderful human inventions. Linguistic design artifacts are very effective when they challenge us to tell stories that make sense to all participants.
Practical Understanding and
Propositional Knowledge
There are many actions in a language-game, not least in the use of prototypes and mockups, that cannot be explicitly described in a formal language. What is it that the users know, that is, what have they learned that they can express in action, but not state explicitly in language? Wittgenstein (1953) asks us to "compare knowing and saying: how many feet high Mont Blanc is--how the word 'game' is used--how a clarinet sounds. If you are surprised that one can know something you are perhaps thinking of a case like the first Certainly not of one of the third. "
In the UTOPIA project, we were designing new computer applications to be used in typographical page makeup. The typographers could tell us the names of the different tools and materials that they use such as knife, page ground, body text, galley, logo, halftone, frame, and spread. They could also tell when, and perhaps in which order, they use specific tools and materials to place an article. For example, they could say, "First you pick up the body text with the knife and place it at the bottom of the designated area on the page ground. Then you adjust it to the galley line. When the body text fits you get the headline, if there is not a picture, " and so forth. What 1, as designer, get to know from such an account is equivalent to knowing the height of Mont Blanc. What I get to know is very different from the practical understanding of really making up pages, just as knowing the height of Mont Blanc gives me very little of understanding the practical experience of climbing the mountain.
Knowledge of the first kind has been called propositional knowledge. It is what you have
"when you know that something is the case and when you also can describe what you know in so many words" (Nordenstam, 1985). Propositional knowledge is not necessarily more reflective than practical understanding. It might just be something that I have been told, but of which I have neither practical experience nor theoretical understanding.
The second case, corresponding to knowing how the word game is used, was more complicated for our typographers. How could they, for example, tell us the skill they possess in knowing how to handle the knife when making up the page in pasteup technology? This is their practical experience from the language-games of typographic design. To show it, they have to do it.
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